Panel 7.2 – The economy of death: New research on collective burial spaces in Rome from the Late Republican to Late Roman period


Organiser/Chair:

  • Thomas Fröhlich (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome)
  • Norbert Zimmermann (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome)

External Discussant:

  • Irene Bragantini (Università degli Studi di Napoli "L'Orientale")

Panel abstract

The panel aims to discuss economic aspects of Roman funerary architecture designed for extensive numbers of burials - such as columbaria, large hypogea, and catacombs - as well as questions about theirs owners and users. We would like to discuss to what extent economics played a leading role in the invention, the development and the use of large communal burial monuments in Rome; and additionally, how these buildings fulfilledthe religious and social needs of their recipients. Some spaces were originally prepared for family groups or various kinds of associations, which in following generations could be still occupied by the same group or could change hands; often traces of related funeral art and inscriptions are preserved. New studies in Roman funerary monuments have documented interesting evidence for the dynamic process of preparation and use of burial space. Particularly in larger constructions for many more burials than a single family, the aspect of economy in ownership and use is a promising avenue for research. Who planned the project? How and why was a certain place chosen and a specific architectural concept applied? How and where in the original project did the owner and their families situate their own burials, and where and in which manner of distribution or acquisition were further tombs sold or given to others? How were various spaces or decorative schemes differentiated, and how consistent was the anticipated use with the actual use? Can we find explanations for the changes? Was there a standardization of workmanship in building techniques and decoration to respond to economic necessities? Why did certain spaces remain out of use? How was a burial space used by the following generations? Do we have evidence of burials grouped into new collectives, or of smaller groups and factions of formerly unified groupings? How is this attested by architecture and artistic evidence, and how do these relate to the epigraphic sources? These questions are especially pressing because over the last decades a series of general studies on Roman burials and burial customs have emerged, but necessarily based on older documentation. Fresh and more detailed analysis of single monuments provide new and different insights and interpretations. We propose reexaming Roman funerary customs, art, architecture and epigraphy through an economic lens.

 

Paper abstracts

1. Dorian Borbonus

Economic strategies in the collective tombs of Imperial Rome
The columbarium tombs of Augustan Rome feature capacities of over 500 burials and readily illustrate the notion of collective burial as a rational economic response. The prevailing historical interpretation of columbarium tombs consequently reads them against the population increase in the city and the resulting need to maximize burial capacity. But the economic dimension of these collective tombs goes beyond their capacity and indications of economic strategies can be traced throughout their entire life-cycle: the planning needed to match the projected occupancy of the monument with the realities of a building site; financing probably required aristocratic backing but there is also evidence for crowd-sourcing strategies; the large-scale construction projects were facilitated by an extremely standardized layout; once in existence, the collective tomb was a valuable resource that was painstakingly administered by governing bodies; and, finally, individuals used various strategies to acquire and secure burial real estate. Economic strategies thus permeated many aspects of collective burial, probably because the practice posed substantial logistical challenges that required innovative and efficient responses.

"Economic strategies in the collective tombs of Imperial Rome" (Fulltext)

 

2. Thomas Fröhlich (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut) / Silke Haps (Technische Universität Dortmund)

Große Gemeinschaftsgräber im frühkaiserzeitlichen Rom: Wirtschaftliche und soziale Aspekte ihrer Erbauung, Ausstattung und Nutzung
Aus der detaillierten Untersuchung und Dokumentation ausgewählter Beispiele großer Gemeinschaftsgräber der frühen Kaiserzeit in Rom, die in der Forschung gemeinhin als Columbaria bezeichnet werden, ergeben sich neue Erkenntnisse zu deren Errichtung und Nutzung. Die gemeinsame Betrachtung von Architektur, Ausstattung und Inschriften, die uns in vielen Fällen über den sozialen Status der hier Bestatteten unterrichten, erlaubt im Hinblick auf wirtschaftliche Aspekte eine vergleichende Betrachtung der Monumente. Während sich in der Bauausführung anscheinend recht schnell eine gewisse Standardisierung durchgesetzt hat, gibt es erhebliche Unterschiede in Bezug auf Größe, Grundrissform, Lage und Ausstattung, die Rückschlüsse auf die ökonomischen Möglichkeiten der Erbauer und Nutzer erlauben. Hierbei wird auch die abgestufte Wertschätzung ersichtlich, die man den einzelnen Aspekten entgegengebrachte; so wurden z.B. gemalte Dekorationen und Inschriftenfelder häufig durch nachträglich eingesetzte Marmorinschriften zerstört. Gleichzeitig lässt sich in einigen Fällen eine soziale und damit auch ökonomische Abstufung innerhalb eines Gemeinschaftsgrabes beobachten und über mehrere Belegungsphasen verfolgen.

"Große Gemeinschaftsgräber im frühkaiserzeitlichen Rom" (Fulltext)

 

3. Clarissa Blume-Jung

Identität und Grab. Zur Individualisierung von Bestattungen in Familienmausoleen und Mehrfamilien-Columbarien in Rom im 1. und 2. Jh. n. Chr.
Die Beisetzung in Columbarien war im römischen Bestattungswesen eine beliebte Variante. Besonders aufschlussreich ist die Betrachtung der Art und Weise, wie Bestattungsplätze im Innern individualisiert wurden. Wurde eine Bestattung in einer normalen Columbariennische vorgenommen, hatte man nur einen begrenzten Raum um seine Nische zu gestalten und gegebenenfalls architektonisch anzupassen. Auch der Inschriftentext blieb aus Platzgründen meist auf den Namen der hier bestatteten Person beschränkt. Der Aufwand der Individualisierung variierte sehr. Viele Beisetzungen blieben, wenn überhaupt, nur mit einer namentlichen Kennzeichnung differenziert. Andere wurden in speziell angepasste Nischen gebettet. Wieder andere Bestattungen fanden ihre letzte Ruhe dahingegen in besonderen, einzelnen in den Columbarien errichteten Grabmalen wie Aschealtären oder Ädikulen, die eine aufwendigere, hochwertigere und offensichtlich auch auffälligere Individualisierung darstellten. Der Vortrag gibt einen Einblick in das Spektrum der Individualisierung von Grabnischen und anderen Bestattungsarten in Columbarien der Stadt Rom im 1. und 2. Jh. n. Chr.

"Tomb and Identity: on the Individualisation of Burials in Collective Burial Spaces in the City of Rome in the 1st and 2nd Century AD" (Fulltext)

 

4. Barbara Borg (University of Exeter)

Peter and Paul ad catacumbas: a pozzolana mine reconsidered
The burial sites of the apostles Peter and Paul are among the most controversial topics in scholarship on early Christianity. Their cult site on the via Appia, set into and above a former pozzolana mine, is still seen by many as a temporary refuge for their relics during times of persecution, while a growing number of scholars has resorted to the assumption that there were rival traditions related to the Appia site on the one hand, and those on the via Ostiense and the Vatican on the other. I shall reconsider the evidence for the apostles’ burial, and the history of their cult on the via Appia, in the light of both the site’s development from quarry to basilica, and its wider context between the second and third milestone of the consular road.

"Peter and Paul ad catacumbas: a Pozzolana Mine Reconsidered" (Fulltext)

 

5. Michela Stefani (Università degli Studi Roma Tre)

The large collective burial monuments of the Scipio's Tomb in Rome.
The Tomb of the Scipios, one of the most well-known monuments of ancient Rome, is located on the Appian way, outside Porta Capena. This site includes not only the famous hypogeum of the Scipios, but also other Republican tombs, two columbaria, a big foundation in tuff, a roman house, an hypogeum with a small catacomb, and another building erected above the Tomb of the Scipios. All of those monuments are been studied in depth for my P.hD.
The aim of this paper is the analysis of the large burial buildings located in this site, such as the columbaria and the hypogeum with the small conjunct catacomb, and a reflection on the economic and ritual aspects that those monuments presume. The columbaria, dated back to the I century AD, are two burial underground chambers in brickwork. The largest one could hold at least 480 urns, the second one is preserved only for a small portion of the N and S wall. Both of the structures has an elegant parietal decoration, attributable to the III pompeian style. The hypogeum is a unique funerary building, dated back to the IV century AD, which has an unusual "L" shape and is characterized by the presence of a small catacomb consisting of two short galleries with burial recesses on walls.
Therefore, the archaeological and decorative analysis of these funerary structures will allow to make a reflection about some questions of this session, such as the economic class of owners and the funeral ritual that this kind of monuments presumes.

"The large collective burial monuments of the Scipio's Tomb in Rome" (Fulltext)

 

6. Norbert Zimmermann (DAI)

Beobachtungen zu wirtschaftlichen Aspekten der römischen Katakomben: Grundbesitz, Graberwerb, Grabnutzung und Grabausstattung im Spiegel archäologischer Quellen
Zu den wirtschaftlichen Aspekten der Anlage und Nutzung der römischen Katakomben gibt es nur wenige schriftliche Quellen, aber in den Zömeterien selbst haben sich eine Fülle von Hinweisen erhalten, die Beobachtungen zulassen im Hinblick auf die Organisation der Katakomben und die Dynamik ihrer Nutzung. Diese wurden bislang selten unter wirtschaftlichen Kriterien untersucht: wie groß sind die Grundstücke, wie tief die Anlagen, welches Volumen hat der Aushub? Wie sind Belegungszyklen nachzuvollziehen, wie lassen sich Graberwerb und Ausstattung rekonstruieren? Die Überlegungen konzentrieren sich insbesondere auf die christlichen Katakomben und nehmen insbesondere die Domitilla-Katakombe in den Blick.

"Beobachtungen zu wirtschaftlichen Aspekten der römischen Katakomben: Grundbesitz, Graberwerb, Grabnutzung und Grabausstattung im Spiegel archäologischer Quellen" (Fulltext)

 

7. Antonio Enrico Felle (Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro")

The 'written death' in collective funerary settlements. Some case studies
In order to reach the goals of the panel “New research on collective burial spaces in Rome from late republic to late Roman time” the paper aims to consider the use of the epigraphs in collective burial areas..
The paper will expose the results of the analysis conducted about two funerary collective settlements in the suburb of Rome suburb: first of all the Christian catacomb of Domitilla along the via Ardeatina, and, if it will possible, the columbarium III of Vigna Codini at the first mile of the via Appia.
The idea is to consider the use of epigraphic medium from both a quantitative and qualitative point of view. How much are the “inscribed tombs” in these areas?; how were they realized? The “collective” or ‘community” trait of these burial areas did or did not influence the choice of materials, techniques, writings, languages, formulas used in the inscriptions? Did still exist professional stone-cutters in service for the users of Christian catacombs, or not?
In fact, all these elements are valuable aspects in order to define the different or homogeneous social and economic level of the users of these funerary settlements.

"The ‚Written Death‘ in Late Roman Collective Funerary Settlements" (Fulltext)

 

8. Agnese Pergola (Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana)

Un cimitero comunitario per l’aristocrazia romana. Il peculiare caso della catacomba dei Ss. Marco Marcelliano e Damaso
La catacomba dei Ss. Marco, Marcelliano, che si colloca all’interno del vasto comprensorio suburbano racchiuso tra le vie Appia e Ardeatina, nacque agli inizi del IV secolo, quando nelle catacombe romane si scavavano le regioni più tarde, ed ebbe il suo massimo sviluppo a cavallo tra IV e V secolo. In questo contributo si intende partire dall’analisi topografica del cimitero in rapporto alle testimonianze epigrafiche e iconografiche per tentare di comprendere quali fattori economico-sociali abbiano portato, non tanto alla sua creazione, quanto al suo sviluppo e continuità. Sebbene si collochi in un’epoca oramai avanzata rispetto alla vita delle catacombe romane il cimitero continua a vivere e ad accogliere sepolture monumentali non meno imponenti dei mausolei del sopratterra. Si cercherà quindi di delineare quelle che furono le motivazioni che spinsero alcuni rappresentanti dell’aristocrazia romana (ma non solo) a scegliere questo luogo di sepoltura che continua a privilegiare la dimensione comunitaria a dispetto dell’esclusività; quali scelte economiche furono alla base delle differenti forme architettoniche e decorative; a chi appartenevano e come furono effettivamente sfruttati gli spazi che, in alcuni casi – come nel “cubicolo delle colonne” – videro una fase di riuso, ingrandimento e abbandono. Si tenterà in fine di comprendere se lo sviluppo del cimitero è legato ad un progetto unitario e chi ne furono i promotori.

 

9. Roberta Ruotolo

Il porto di Roma: caratteri di continuità e di discontinuità con i cimiteri dell’Urbe. Il riutilizzo degli spazi funerari di età classica come modello economico o fenomeno di parassitismo architettonico?
La funzione di Ostia, come porto militare e commerciale di Roma, appare strettamente legata alle vicende della capitale.
Le testimonianze sull’utilizzo funerario del suburbio, numerose in età classica, si presentano più esigue nel tardo antico. Tuttavia, è riscontrabile una continuità nello sfruttamento da parte della comunità cristiana delle necropoli pagane presso cui si installarono le chiese ostiensi.
L’impianto della basilica di Pianabella, in un’area sepolcrale ancora in funzione, richiama il caso della Necropoli Vaticana. Nell’edificio ostiense si assiste all’inserimento di un recinto funerario presso l’abside della chiesa, che accoglie cento sepolture, sistemazione che rievoca lo sfruttamento sepolcrale intensivo tipico dei santuari martiriali del suburbio romano. Il presente contributo si pone come obiettivo di ricostruire le modalità attraverso cui i sepolcri di età classica furono riutilizzati per l’impianto degli edifici di culto cristiani. Il ritrovamento di tessellati musivi suggerisce il recupero degli schemi decorativi precedenti nonché degli stessi spazi sepolcrali. Più complessa appare la lettura delle tecniche costruttive, tra cui prevale l’uso dell’opera vittata. La costruzione della chiesa di S. Ercolano, risparmia - mantenendolo in funzione -, da un lato, un colombario di cui si avviò lo studio delle olle cinerarie ivi rinvenute, dall’altro, vede l’edificazione di numerose formae variamente orientate che testimoniano l’importanza del polo cultuale.

"Il porto di Roma: caratteri di continuità e di discontinuità con i cimiteri dell’Urbe" (Fulltext)